,,,<span class="title"> Learning and Motivation:
Designing the On-Ramp of Your Game
Josh Aaron Miller
@joshaaronmiller
</span>
<img
src=https://web.northeastern.edu/guii/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/guii_controller_buttons.png width="200" height="200" alt="[image of GUII lab icon]"><img
src=https://c1.staticflickr.com/5/4276/35110845626_5e5a4583f0_o.png width="400" height="300" alt="[image of Northeastern University icon]" </div></div>
(Adapted from a presentation given at BFIG Learns 2019)
<span class="title">
[[Start!->Introduction]]</span><span class="header"> Hooks </span>
(if: $xelu < 1)[ (set: $xelu to 1)
Nicolae Berbece (Xelu) can explain it better than I ever could:
(from GDC '16)
<iframe width="640" height="480" src="https://ytcropper.com/embed/VM5c534ba40e749/loop/noautoplay/" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><a href="/" target="_blank"></a>
<font color="green">“The best tutorial is the one nobody remembers”</font>
]
The Hook and Kicker (Mike Rose, GDC '18)
* "[What you think is the hook] is probably the kicker."
* Establish the context before adding the twist
* Big concept, *then* technical fun facts and gimmicks.
* Example: Breath of the Wild is a Zelda game first, an open world second
* Takeaway: The first ten minutes of your game should tell the player exactly what there is to love about the experience: hook then kicker
<span class="hop">
"Hook 'em fast and hard" (Clanton 1998)
* [[Establish the Quest|Goals]]
* [[Provide a gentle on-ramp|Tutorial Tips]]
* [[Keep 'em hooked|Engagement]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
</span>
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Engagement </span>
Is the experience moment-to-moment engaging? This is about how games can make you want to keep playing (<span class="external">[[Mark Brown]]</span>)
After you get the player <span class="hop">[[hooked->Hooks]]</span>, engagement is, practically speaking, a matter of:
* [[Pacing]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Narrative]]
And, of course, there are [[theories->Theory]] behind why things are the way they are.
(if: $visited > 10)[
When you're ready to try to apply these concepts, click here to <span class="hop">[[Think Critically]]</span> about our designs.
]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Pacing </span>
Best game examples: Bastion
<span class="reveal-link">(link-reveal:"A matter of variety:")[
(link-reveal:" Varied activities")[
(link-reveal:" Varied intensity")[
(link-reveal:" Compelling challenge")[
Randomness (e.g., roguelikes) can also help vary the pace.
]]]]</span>
* Pacing is described by [[Flow]] Theory.
* Pacing is also important as a <span class="hop">[[learning tool->Gee]]</span>.
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Theory]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]# Novelty
(text-style:"underline")[How often do you add new content? New ideas?]
(text-style:"shadow")[How often do you change things up? Put things in new perspective?]
(text-style:"expand")[When do you add new mechanics, new story, new characters, new skills?]
(text-style:"mark")[Track the rate at which you introduce novelty.]
(text-style:"smear")[Foreshadowing, mysteries, and cliffhangers can give your player a taste of novelty, a teaser of what's to come.]
(text-style:"rumble")[It gets them excited to consume that content!]
(text-style:"shudder")[BUT BEWARE ADDING NOVELTY TOO QUICKLY]
## (text-style:"blurrier")[Because novelty comes with increased cognitive load]
## (text-style:"fade-in-out")[And you can easily overwhelm the player!]
### (text-style:"subscript")[just as bad is not adding novelty often enough]
### (text-style:"condense")[and your players will get bored]
So introduce novelty at a good [[pace->Pacing]].
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Pacing]]
* [[Theory]]
This was my favorite page to make :)
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Progress </span>
Best game examples: most RPGs, level-based games
(color:"lightgreen")[You have visited $visited pages. There are 90 unique pages to visit.]</span>
The player should always feel like they're progressing.
* Have clear long-term and short-term [[Goals]]
* "Exponential" growth is a neat trick that MMOs like to use
* [[Reward->Rewards]] the player for progressing
Progression is part of the <span class="hop">[[Cycles of Expertise]]</span>.
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Theory]]
* [[Pacing]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Narrative </span>
<img src=http://outbox.myvnc.com/grue.gif
alt="[it is pitch black, you are likely to be eaten by a grue]">
The narrative of your game is a key part of motivation. It determines:
* Your player's fantasy
* How they <span class="hop">[[relate->Relatedness]] </span>
* Their <span class="hop">[[role->Identity]] </span>
There's entire fields dedicated to the idea of narrative, so even attempting to summarize narrative at a high-level would be out of scope.
Instead, think about how your narrative serves to connect to the player. Do you <span class="hop">[[know your player?->Player Types]]</span>
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Progress]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Theory]]
* [[Pacing]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Flow </span>
Best game examples: Tetris Effect (2018)
<img src=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Seiji_Isotani/publication/280239459/figure/fig3/AS:391481660592136@1470347909282/Model-of-Csikszentmihalyi.png width="750" height="600"
alt="[Flow theory graph]">
(Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, 1990)
(if: $competence > 0)[Flow is an avenue for Competence.]
(if: $pleasant > 0)[Flow ensures the game is *pleasantly frustrating*.]
(if: $cycle > 0)[Flow promotes *cycles of expertise*.]
(if: $pacing < 1)[Flow is a theory of [[Pacing]].]
Ultimately, Flow is about setting the correct level of Challenge:
* Challenge is a matter of <span class="hop">[[Competence]]</span>
* Challenge is about balancing <span class="hop">[[Cognitive Load->CLT]]</span> When you do achieve the right amount of challenge, the game becomes <span class="hop">[[Pleasantly Frustrating]]</span>.
<span class="reveal-link">(link-reveal:"Details of the theory, why game media gets it wrong:")[
In popular game media, flow has become entangled with immersion and used to generally describe a good game experience. Flow theory is actually meant to be specifically about challenge. A Flow state achieved by:
* Clear goals and immediate feedback
* Complete concentration on the task
* Balance of challenge and skill
And this results in:
* An intrinsically rewarding experience ("autotelic")
* A sense of control
* Losing self-consciousness and external awareness, action is automatic
* Effortlessness
* Distortion of perception of time
] </span>
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Theory]]
Flow plays into several [[Playability heuristics]].
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Gee's Principles of Good Learning </span>
James Paul Gee wrote a lot about how good games use principles that reflect what good learning looks like.
These principles are organized in 3 sections:
1. [[Empowered Learners]]
2. [[Problem Solving]]
3. [[Understanding]]
(if: $visited > 10)[
When you're ready to try to apply these concepts, click here to <span class="hop">[[Think Critically]]</span> about our designs.
]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
<img src=https://www.tcpress.com/filebin/images/author_bio/19589.jpg alt="[image of James Paul Gee]">
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Player Types </span>
Several researchers and scholars have tried to categorize players. If you follow this trail of research, you'll also find how the types connect to **personality traits** and what **game design elements fit each player type**.
**Bartle's "Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, and Spades (4 types, 1999)"**
<img src=http://www.gamasutra.com/db_area/images/feature/6474/03-UM-BartleTypes.png
width="600" height="500" alt="[a graph of Bartle's player types]">
**Bartle's Types Extended (7 types, 2013)**
<img src=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stefan_Greuter/publication/259044226/figure/fig1/AS:297229282758656@1447876391140/Bartles-Player-Types-Extended-2.png alt="[a graph of BrainHex player types]">
**BrainHex (7 types, 2013)**
Based on a neurobiological approach
<img src=https://userscontent2.emaze.com/images/42728703-f585-473c-9f55-7611782d0cb5/7b32fcf6-ad4c-4e6f-8556-155875dd9664jpeg alt="[a graph of BrainHex player types]">
**Hexad User Types (6 types, 2015)**
<img src=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gustavo_Tondello/publication/308083575/figure/fig1/AS:406238098673666@1473866118732/Gamification-User-Types-Hexad-27_W640.jpg alt="[a graph of Hexad player types]">
See also: <span class="external">[[a cool diagram of what game design elements would fit each player type->hexad]]</span>.
Continue to <span class="external">[[more data about what players care about->Quantic Foundry]]</span>, or go back to [[SDT]] or check out [[Autonomy]], [[Competence]], or [[Purpose]], or back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Games With a Purpose (GWAPs) </span>
Games with a Purpose (GWAPs) are [[Serious Games]] that *produce useful data*.
"GWAP" coined by Luis von Ahn, co-founder of Duolingo and developer of CAPTCHA, reCAPTCHA, and the ESP Game.
GWAPs = Human Computation Games, or Crowdsourcing Games
(color:"lightgreen")["Crowdsourcing for fun and profit!"]
Human Computation Games (HCGs) try to:
* solve problems that are hard for computers
* work with computers to solve problems that are hard for humans
* combine human creativity with computational efficiency
[[These are hard games to make->The Challenge of Complex Games]].
Some [[Citizen Science Games]] like Foldit are also HCGs.
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
(if: $visited > 10)[
If we're going to get serious about designing great purposeful games, we'll need to <span class="hop">[[Think Critically]]</span> about our designs.
]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Educational Games </span>
Educational Games, games intended to teach something, are a type of [[Serious Game->Serious Games]].
<img src=https://cdn.education.com/files/static/game-images/counting-in-the-kitchen-thumbnail.jpg
alt="[an educational game]">
To a hardcore gamer, educational games might seem not very fun or motivating. **They are very hard to design.** Partly because the entire experience is a tutorial, and this comes with an increase to <span class="hop">[[cognitive load->CLT]]</span>.
(color:"lightgreen")["Tutorials: The Game!"]
Companies like Schell Games and ABCmouse solve this problem by closely connecting game designers with *subject matter experts (SMEs)*. If you want to teach a non-game concept in your game, find some SMEs and consult them early and often. Teaching players real world concepts while also engaging them is tricky.
[[These are hard games to make->The Challenge of Complex Games]].
Other kinds of [[Serious Games]]:
* [[Citizen Science Games]]
* [[Games With a Purpose->GWAPs]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
(if: $visited > 10)[
If we're going to get serious about designing great educational games, we'll need to <span class="hop">[[Think Critically]]</span> about our designs.
]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Serious Games </span>
<img src=https://c1.sfdcstatic.com/content/dam/blogs/us/Feb2017/transformation.jpg
alt="[a butterfly transforming]">
Also called Transformational Games, these are games that **gamify non-game contexts** or **transform the user** in some way.
<img src=https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/71lqHAbqdEL.jpg
alt="[a simulation game]">
This includes:
* User Training
* Simulation Games
* [[Educational Games]]
* [[Game-based learning / "Edutainment"->Educational Games]]
* [[Games With a Purpose->GWAPs]]
* [[Citizen Science Games]]
Games like *Papers, Please* prove that your game can be transformational and also provide an engaging experience.
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Empowered Learners </span>
Empowering Learners is one of James Paul [[Gee]]'s goals in designing good games and good learning.
It has 5 principles:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Problem Solving </span>
Problem Solving is one of James Paul [[Gee]]'s goals in designing good games and good learning.
It has 7 principles:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Understanding </span>
Understanding is one of James Paul [[Gee]]'s goals in designing good games and good learning.
It has 3 principles:
1. [[System thinking]]
2. [[Meaning as action image]]
3. [[Lateral Exploration]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Co-Design </span>
Learners are co-designers, producing content, actively making decisions.
* Agentic play
* Ownership
* Buy-in
* Engaged participation
How do your players get to help design the game? In RuneScape, Jagex gives players the power to <span class="external">[[help design the game]]</span>.
What gives your players the feeling of being agents in control of their own learning? How do they [[Customize]] their experience to form their own [[Identity]] and personal <span class="hop">[[Narrative]]</span>?
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Customize </span>
<img src=https://www.carlsguides.com/strategy/civilization5/gamepictures/victory.gif alt="[ways to win in Civilization 5]">
Everyone has a different style of learning and playing. Embrace that.
**Accept diverse approaches and encourage players to try new styles**
* Have multiple ways to solve problems
* Provide a [[safety net->Sandboxes]] to try new things
The customization needs to be **meaningful** to the way players [[interact->Manipulation]] with the game. Customizing how your character looks doesn't give this kind of customization, nor does it give much feeling of <span class="hop">[[Autonomy]]</span> (Rigby, GDC '17).
Customization is one way to [[laterally explore->Lateral Exploration]].
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Identity </span>
Learners commit when they take on an **identity**, a role they can extend into.
Why is the new Spiderman game great? Everyone has already said it.
<img src=https://pics.me.me/spiderman-for-ps4-really-makes-you-feel-like-spiderman-b000-36265132.png alt="[comic about how the new Spiderman makes you feel like spiderman]">
Most games understand how taking on a role can provide context for feeling <span class="hop">[[powerful->Competence]]</span>, and this enables learning.
Be Spiderman, think like Spiderman, [[solve problems->Problem Solving]] like Spiderman, understand why Spiderman cares about these problems.
(color:"lightgreen")[When learners adopt and practice an identity, learning follows intuitively (Shaffer, 2004).]
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Manipulation </span>
(color:"lightgreen")[Interaction is the heart of learning and playing.]
**Humans are designed to interact with things.**
Perception and action are deeply interconnected (Barsalou 1999; Clark 1997; Glenberg 1997; Glenberg & Robertson 1999)
Games have the power to extend your perception/action into distant virtual avatars and spaces (Clark 2003).
Super Meat Boy is basically surgery. You can learn an incredible amount of skill from interaction and manipulation.
**Performance before competence**
Let the players *do* before they're capable or competent to do anything useful, interesting, or successful. Let them feel it out.
(color:"lightgreen")[Doing > Showing > Telling]
Using [[Smart Tools]] makes them perform with more <span class="hop">[[Competence]]</span>.
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Distributed Knowledge </span>
(color:"pink")["Our strength will come from finding a way to share in shouldering the responsibility of turning the impossible into somehow. Somehow, we will do this. We can do this." - Shane Koyczan, *Shoulders*]
Learning is easier if one player doesn't have to learn everything.
Distribute this responsibility [[across players->Cross-Functional Teams]], [[across time->Cycles of Expertise]], or even [[let the game handle some of it->Smart Tools]]. Let the players share experiences with each other, so they don't have to learn all of the mistakes on their own.
Distributed Knowledge is easiest to see in two ways:
* [[Smart Tools]]
* [[Cross-Functional Teams]]
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Smart Tools </span>
<img src=http://i.imgur.com/0jlp3At.gif alt="[gif of reloading]">
You don't need to understand transistors to use a computer.
**Smart Tools** are tools that handle the minutiae so you can focus on high-level strategies.
* Reloading in a first-person shooter is a smart tool
* Lara Croft's ability to climb is a smart tool
* Moving a unit in a real-time strategy game is a smart tool
* Most appliances (washing machine, stereo) are smart tools
* Your game's physics engine is a smart tool
(Challenge round: can you think of any smart tools used to teach in the classroom?)
Smart tools enable you to create [[Well-ordered Problems]] by abstracting systems into [[Fish Tanks]] and giving the player more <span class="hop">[[Competence]]</span>. Smart tools are a form of [[Distributed Knowledge]].
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Well-ordered Problems </span>
A well-ordered **problem space** guides the player to form good mental models and hypotheses of how [[the system works->System thinking]], avoiding *garden paths*.
A bad problem space can be:
* Too <span class="hop">[[free-form->Autonomy]]</span>
* Too <span class="hop">[[complex->Extraneous Load]]</span>
This leads to solutions that don't generalize.
(color:"lightgreen")[The order of problems in your problem space is critical (Clark 1989, Elman 1991, Gee 1992, Gee 2001)]
Well-ordered does *not necessarily* mean linear, but a *designed experience*.
<span class="hop">[[Mario->Nintendo approach]]</span> is a great example of well-ordered problem spaces.
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Pleasantly Frustrating </span>
<img src=http://parklandplayers.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/The-Zone-of-Proximal-Development.jpg alt="[zone of proximal development]">
The **Zone of Proximal Development**, also called the edge of the **"regime of competence"** is at the edge of the comfort zone where the learning happens.
* Challenging but doable
* Even when you fail, you can see how and if you're making progress
Encourage the player to be in this zone, through:
* [[Dynamic Difficulty->Customize]]
* [[Well-ordered Problems]]
* Feedback
* <span class="hop">[[Pacing]]</span>
Eventually, the player should learn where their comfort zone is, how it's changing over time, and how to expand it.
(color:"lightgreen")[A good game doesn't judge the player for whether they finish or how they do compared to others. A good game encourages them to keep trying.]
### “The final boss is willing to wait until I am good enough to beat him” - Gee
<img src=https://darksouls.wiki.fextralife.com/file/Dark-Souls/Boss_0023_Iron%20Golem.jpg alt="[Dark Souls boss battle]">
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Cycles of Expertise </span>
1. Problem is discovered
2. Skill is introduced
3. Learn the skill
4. Practice the skill
5. Skill becomes automatic
6. Skill is challenged (repeat 3-6 or 4-6)
7. Skill is consolidated, <span class="hop">[[chunked->CLT]]</span>
8. Skill is discovered to be not enough - new problem arises (go to 1)
The cycle alternates "fruitful practice" and new challenges.
When done right, this creates the feeling of <span class="hop">[[Progress]]</span> and accumulation.
When done wrong, this creates a stagnant or "grindy" experience.
By finishing this page, you've gained +1 Intelligence ;)
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Information "On Demand" and "Just in Time" </span>
<img src=http://www.megabearsfan.net/image.axd/2017/4/DarkSouls-tutorial_parry_fail.jpg width="800" height="500" alt="[Dark Souls tutorial on parrying]">
Remember when games came with a manual, and you would get so excited that you read it cover to cover but still have no idea what's going on because you haven't played yet?
**Context-sensitivity** (a.k.a. situated meanings)
Humans are bad at using lots of information out of context before they can see how it applies in actual situations. They like knowing information:
* When they can put it to use (*just in time*)
* When they feel they need it (*on demand*)
(color:"lightgreen")+(text-style:"shadow")["On Demand" has just been added to your Dictionary! (NEW!)]
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Fish Tanks </span>
<img src=https://i5.walmartimages.com/asr/a6a6c336-5e0f-44f2-93c8-737e69f41a83_1.34ae06d79f555a561a4ceeb6a4173ac7.jpeg?odnHeight=450&odnWidth=450&odnBg=FFFFFF alt="[a fish tank]">
A fish tank is a **small, simplified ecosystem**, which clearly displays key concepts and their interactions.
These concepts get obscured in the real system, but fish tanks highlight the core from the rest of the mud.
* Helps learners begin to know what to [[pay attention to->Well-ordered Problems]]
* Avoids *garden paths*
* Limits <span class="hop">[[complexity->Extraneous Load]]</span>
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Sandboxes </span>
<img src=https://i1.wp.com/crookedpixels.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/smb-1-1.jpg?resize=1200%2C600&ssl=1 alt="[part of a Mario level]">
A sandbox is a **safe haven**, it looks and feels real, but with **lowered consequences of failure**.
A good on-ramp:
* Encourages risk-taking and exploration
* Doesn't punish early
* Doesn't punish the same mistakes repeatedly
* Mimics real expectations
* Still feels authentic, therefore an accomplishment to complete
* Lets the player feel [[able to perform before being competent->Manipulation]]
When the player is learning, (color:"lightgreen")[Failure is informative, not a final judgment.]
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Skills as Strategies </span>
Skills are tools, and tools are nothing without a <span class="hop">[[Purpose]]</span>.
To teach a skill, start with a goal and a reason to <span class="hop">[[progress->Progress]]</span>. Then a player's skills become a **strategy** to accomplish their goals.
Why do Overwatch players practice animation cancelling, but high schoolers don't want to read Shakespeare?
Overwatch: animation cancelling becomes higher damage becomes more success
Shakespeare: what's the <span class="hop">[[goal->Goals]]</span>? What are the discrete skills, and how do they add up to a larger strategy toward something <span class="hop">[[I want to achieve->Autonomy]]</span>?
(color:"lightgreen")["In games, players see skills first and foremost as a **strategy for accomplishing a goal**, only secondarily as a set of discrete skills" - [[Gee]]]
[[Back to Problem Solving->Problem Solving]]:
1. [[Well-ordered Problems]]
2. [[Pleasantly Frustrating]]
3. [[Cycles of Expertise]]
4. [[Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
5. [[Fish Tanks]]
6. [[Sandboxes]]
7. [[Skills as Strategies]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> System Thinking </span>
<img src=http://www.winstonslab.com/news/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/fail-1.jpg alt="[Winston, from Overwatch, examining his failing shield]">
Encourage players to see the **relationships and interactions** with the whole system, instead of isolated events, facts, or [[skills->Skills as Strategies]].
Overwatch, and most competitive team-based multiplayer games, are entirely about system thinking and understanding the interactions of abilities and strategies. Even Winston demonstrates this in the trailer for Overwatch.
(color:"lightgreen")[Learning is the curious, playful exploration of a system of interactions.]
System thinking is easier if you start the player in a [[sandbox->Sandboxes]] or [[fish tank->Fish Tanks]]. The <span class="hop">[[Nintendo approach]]</span> teaches you a system one step at a time.
[[Back to Understanding->Understanding]]:
1. [[System thinking]]
2. [[Meaning as action image]]
3. [[Lateral Exploration]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Meaning as action image </span>
<img src=https://images.fineartamerica.com/images/artworkimages/mediumlarge/1/imagining-marquin-campbell.jpg width="400" height="400" alt="[abstract painting]">
(color:"lightgreen")[Abstract concepts are **really** hard for humans to understand.]
Humans think through experiences and imaginations of experiences.
**Link concepts with things you can see and do**
(color:"yellow")[Imagine a lightbulb wrapped in heavy metal chains, and these chains are tied around a brain, and by holding this link, you are holding the lightbulb.] Imagery solidifies concepts. Add audio, smells, sensory experiences. Something real and concrete.
<span class="reveal-link">(link-reveal:"Bad example:")[
When scholars describe the meta-textual layers of the theory of the Four Step Framework for Abstraction Reduction, **this jargon means nothing because it's not tied to our experiences**.]
</span>
(color:"lightgreen")[To understand a machine, you need to be able to "run" it in your head.]
These meanings allow you to perform [[System thinking]]. When the information is in a [[fish tank->Fish Tanks]] you can process it easier.
[[Back to Understanding->Understanding]]:
1. [[System thinking]]
2. [[Meaning as action image]]
3. [[Lateral Exploration]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Cross-Functional Teams </span>
<img src=https://ih1.redbubble.net/image.413287027.4003/raf,750x1000,075,t,black_lightweight_raglan_sweatshirt.u1.jpg width="400" height="500" alt="[icons for healing, tanking, and dps]">
**Asymmetric play** allows players to master specialties without needing to master everything. They also provide **affiliation to each other**, <span class="hop">[[commitment to a common cause->Relatedness]]</span>, allowing them to learn from each other.
In the classroom, group projects would have so much more potential if students were bringing *specialized knowledge* to the team.
Cross-Functional teams are a form of [[Distributed Knowledge]].
[[Back to Empowered Learners->Empowered Learners]]:
1. [[Co-Design]]
2. [[Customize]]
3. [[Identity]]
4. [[Manipulation]]
5. [[Distributed Knowledge]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Lateral Exploration </span>
[[Gee]] describes the idea of **horizontal learning** vs. **vertical learning**.
Vertical learning is adding more <span class="hop">[[complexity->Intrinsic Load]]</span> and building up.
Horizontal learning is scaffolding, exploration, [[Manipulation]], rethinking <span class="hop">[[goals->Goals]]</span> and solidifying how you understand the [[system->System thinking]], developing [[meaningful conceptualizations->Meaning as action image]] for every idea.
[[Back to Understanding->Understanding]]:
1. [[System thinking]]
2. [[Meaning as action image]]
3. [[Lateral Exploration]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"https://quanticfoundry.com/2016/12/15/primary-motivations/")
<span class="header"> Self-Determination Theory (SDT) </span>
Motivation, described in three pieces:
* [[Autonomy]] < perhaps the single most important factor, says Rigby
* [[Relatedness]]
* [[Competence]]
Players should feel *motivated* to play, confident in their *ability to succeed*, and *free* in how they choose to perform.
Some authors have suggested a fourth component, [[Purpose]], to capture the player's *intrinsic motivation* or internal desire.
When applied to games specifically, SDT is sometimes called the <span class="external">[[PENS]]</span> model, or Player Experience of Need Satisfaction.
Researchers like to apply this theory to <span class="hop">[[Serious Games]] and [[Citizen Science Games]]</span>.
<span class="reveal-link">
(link-reveal: "Bonus fun fact:")[
Despite the acronym, SDT is (hilariously) not to be confused with the <span class="external">[[ARCS]]</span> (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction) model of motivation (Keller), which is also a useful model of motivating learning, or even with <span class="external">[[Wehmeyer's]]</span> ARC Self-Determination Scale.]
</span>
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Autonomy </span>
Autonomy is a component of [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]].
Best game examples: Witcher
Autonomy is a sense of ~~independence~~ agency and **volition**, that the players *want* to take the actions they are taking. Not only do they have control of how they achieve their goals, but they feel ownership of these goals. (Rigby, GDC '17)
More *meaningful* choices (and fewer non-meaningful choices).
[[Relatedness]] and [[Competence]] also support a sense of agency.
What is a <span class="external"> [[meaningful choice]]</span>?
Unfortunately, I don't have time to get into that rabbit hole.
Instead, go back to [[SDT]] or check out [[Competence]], [[Relatedness]], or [[Purpose]], or back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
<img src=http://what-i-stand-for.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/god-and-choices-672x372.jpg alt="[streetsign showing two choices]">
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Competence </span>
Competence (or mastery) is a component of [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]].
Best game examples: Mario, see the [[Nintendo approach]]
Make the players feel competent by teaching them the skills they need to succeed. <span class="external">[[Dan Cook]]</span> wrote a great article about understanding the atomic skills of your game and organizing them into a skill tree.
<img src=https://www.gamasutra.com/db_area/images/feature/1524/alchemy_6.jpg alt="[a skill atom, from Dan Cook's article]">
Other ways to teach skills include <span class="hop">[[Gee]]</span>'s principles of good learning or a solid <span class="hop">[[tutorial->Tutorial Tips]]</span>. Or take the [[Nintendo approach]], a masterful pattern that Nintendo has down to a science.
When the players skill meets the challenge, this creates flow and a "pleasantly frustrating" experience.
Or go back to [[SDT]], or check out [[Autonomy]], [[Relatedness]], or [[Purpose]], or back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Relatedness </span>
Relatedness is a component of [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]].
Best game examples: Dark Souls
<img src=https://pbs.twimg.com/media/DxNrXZQX4AARDwP.jpg width="400" height="350" alt="[BFIG Learns poster]">
Make your players feel like they matter, like they are connected to the community, connected to the subject, that the game and its community depends on each player individually. Relate the game to what they care about. Relate it to who they are.
Let them share things around, and relate to each other. "It's fun to be known." (Clanton)
[[Know your player->Player Types]]. (Or go back to [[SDT]] or check out [[Autonomy]], [[Competence]], or [[Purpose]], or back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.)
<img src=http://www.rantlifestyle.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/characters.jpg alt="[popular video game characters]">
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Purpose </span>
Purpose is sometimes considered a component of [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]].
Best game examples: Foldit, a <span class="hop">[[citizen science game->Citizen Science Games]]</span>
What's your player's reason for playing? What do they say they desire, what do they think they desire, and what does their heart desire? If you convince them that your game helps them achieve that purpose, they will be hooked.
What rewards are they seeking? More content? Narrative? Progress? There's a lot of research on rewards and reward structures, but I'll leave that for you to find on your own. It'll be more rewarding if you do.
[[Know your player->Player Types]]. (Or go back to [[SDT]] or check out [[Autonomy]], [[Competence]], or [[Relatedness]], or back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.)
<img src=https://www.ecomare.nl/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/bruinvis-boven-water-michael-01-sd-1.jpg alt="[a porpoise]">
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Kishōtenketsu, the Nintendo Approach </span>
The 4-act narrative form found in Chinese poetry and Japanese comics.
<img src=https://everwalker.files.wordpress.com/2017/10/4304739-_sx540_1.jpg?w=652 alt="[a visualization of Kishōtenketsu]">
In designing levels, Nintendo uses this 4-step approach <span class="external">[[(citation)->Nintendo citation]]</span>
* Introduction - a <span class="hop">[[safe->Sandboxes]]</span> first encounter, one interaction/mechanic at a time
* Development - no more <span class="hop">[[safety net->Sandboxes]]</span>, harder challenges on one mechanic
* Twist - introduction of other challenges, <span class="hop">[[new perspectives->Novelty]]</span>
* Conclusion - final test of mastery, close the narrative structure
<img src=https://media.wired.com/photos/5a99d04be7ab4d3c1489b3ea/master/w_800,c_limit/mariomaker2.jpg alt="[an example of the Introduction step in a Mario level]">
We see this 4-step progressive structure not only in Mario levels, but in:
* Strategy games (Explore, Expand, Exploit, Exterminate)
* MMOs (Discover, Explore, Understand, Final Fight)
Arguably, this pattern expands further:
* Music (Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release)
* `[Insert farfetched references to narrative structures or the Hero's Journey here`]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Tutorial Tips </span>
Here are some concrete Do's and Don'ts. As you explore the theories, more tips and the *why* behind the tips will appear.
Don't have blocks of text.
(if: $clt > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Avoid overloading their *cognitive load*.]]
Avoid pop-ups.
(if: $jit > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Provide information *on demand* or *just in time*.]]
(if: $engagement > 0)[Avoid showing full controller schemes.
(if: $clt > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Complexity adds *cognitive load*.]]
(if: $jit > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Provide information *on demand* or *just in time*.]]
]
Avoid lengthy dead ends.
(if: $rewards > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[There's no *reward* to all of that effort.]]
Apply the right amount of pressure.
(if: $flow > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Keep them in *Flow*.]]
Prefer diegetic, immersive text to non-diegetic text.
(if: $narrative > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Their *narrative* is interrupted by external information.]]
(if: $worlds > 0)[Recognize what controller the player is using and personalize instructions to that controller.
(if: $jit > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Be *context sensitive*, provide only the information that's relevant to them.]]
]
Teach *gradually* through experience. Doing > Showing > Telling
(See Half-Life 2 for great examples)
(if: $autonomy > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Give them *autonomy* in learning.]]
Give hints, not answers.
(if: $rewards > 0)[The *reward* of discovering the answer on your own is a great feeling.]
(if: $autonomy > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[Give them *autonomy* in solving.]]
(if: $engagement > 2)[Respect the player's intelligence
Know the player's attention span. Match the experience to their engagement.
(if: $flow > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[*Pace* your content to their expectations.]]
Know how much they know, personalize to their game literacy. [[Customize]].]
(if: $worlds > 1)[Use standards:
* Color
* Input mappings
* UI organization
(if: $clt > 0)[(color:"lightgreen")[*Allow them to use information they've already learned.*]]
Use art techniques to draw their attention:
* Color and contrast
* Lighting, perspective, and angles
* Placement, isolation, convergence
(Make the game [[usable->Usability]])]
(if: $worlds > 2)[Know the affordances of your game: physical, cognitive, and perceptual.
<img src=https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b1/1e/fd/b11efd9a506e42e7aef3f06fe90a978c.jpg alt="[wall that looks interactable]">
]
Ready to dive back into the theory? Try one of these:
* [[CLT]]
* [[Flow]]
* [[SDT]]
* [[Playability]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) </span>
Learning is a three step process:
1. Consider multiple interacting elements
2. Form these into a *cognitive schema*
3. *Chunk* this scheme into a single, atomic unit
([[See an example of chunking in action->Learning Example]])
During this process, the learner feels **cognitive load**, which CLT breaks down into three pieces:
* [[Intrinsic Load]]
* [[Extraneous Load]]
* [[Germane Load]]
Ideal learning happens when the learner isn't overloaded.
Cognitive load plays into several [[Playability heuristics]].
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 20)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Playability heuristics </span>
Guidelines for good [[Playability]]
This page is the academic analogy to my list of <span class="hop">[[Tutorial Tips]]</span>.
It's also a **major info dump**. <span class="hop">[[Turn back now->The Map]] if your heart is not ready.
Here's what researchers think make good games:
(Citations include Korhonen, Koivisto, Desurvire, Wiburg, Pinelle, Wong, Stach, Gutwin, Macey, and the folks from [[citizen science motivation->what motivates citizen scientists to play these games]])
**Game Experience**
* Enjoying the game
* Experiencing Flow
* Proper challenge
* Clear or player-created goals
* Balance of challenge, strategy, and pace
* Support [[different strategies->Customize]]
* The game world is consistent and supports the player's [[Narrative]]
* The player feels [[in control->Co-Design]]
* The player doesn't need to read documentation to play, they can just start playing
**Usability**
* A/V feedback, indicators
* Simple, pleasing screen layout / UI
* Consistent, standard, intuitive, [[flexible->Customize]] controls
* Avoid irreversible errors and losing hard-won possessions
* Help [[on demand and just in time->Information On Demand and Just in Time]]
* Minimize [[cognitive load->CLT]]
* On mobile, handle interruptions easily (casual jump in/out play)
</span>
... and so much more. The full list is useful when you've mastered everything else in this web. If you're craving more, contact me (@joshaaronmiller, miller.josh@husky.neu.edu) and I can send you the rest of this information.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Why Are These Games So Hard To Make? </span>
[[Transformational Games->Serious Games]] struggle with three tasks:
* <span class="hop">[[Learnability]]</span>, or teaching the players how to play a complex game
* <span class="hop">[[Engagement]]</span>, or keeping the players interested in playing a game for more than just entertaining themselves
* Retention, or keeping the players playing at all
Often, these struggles are ameliorated by <span class="hop">[[Purpose]], [[Playability]], and [[the principles of good learning design->Gee]].
</span>
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Playability </span>
Other people have different (smaller scope) definitions for playability. This leads to confusing it with usability, learnability, or the game content itself.
That's why I like to think of playability as an umbrella term for all of these things:
* [[Learnability]] (tutorial, learning curve)
* [[Usability]] (UI, feedback)
* [[Game content->Narrative]] (story, gameplay, mechanics)
Some researchers have developed [[Playability heuristics]] as guidelines for making good games.
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]Memorize this pattern. You have 5 seconds.
882, 246, 461, 35
[[OK->Learning Example 2]]Got it memorized yet?
[[Yes, I cheated->Learning Example 3]]
[[No, I'm human->Learning Example 3]]Let's change our associative representation.
This is the same pattern.
88...22...4646...1...3...5
[[It's still really hard->Learning Example 4]]Okay, let's change our symbolic representation:
[[I don't... what?->Learning Example 5]]<img src=https://images.mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/mf_image_16x9/public/261961-a_konami.png?itok=QXHrvjP8&resize=1100x1100 alt="[the konami code]">
<span class="external">[[I still don't get it]]</span>
[[Oh. I get it.->Learning Example 6]](open-url:"https://contra.fandom.com/wiki/Konami_Code")<span class="header"> Chunking </span>
Why was this new sequence easier?
* The sequence and its units were meaningful
* We have practiced and rehearsed it before
* We have *chunked* the Konami code as a single unit
[[Benefits of Cognitive Schemata]]<span class="header"> Cognitive Schemata </span>
To *chunk* different elements is to make them into a single *cognitive schema*.
A schema:
* Has faster retrieval speeds
* Requires fewer retrieval cues
* Automates processing
* Comes at no extra cost of resources or cognitive load
[[Back to CLT->CLT]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Intrinsic Load </span>
Intrinsic load is one of the 3 components of [[Cognitive Load Theory->CLT]].
It represents the **interactivity of elements**, or the "interconnectedness" of all the moving parts.
Example:
* learning new vocabulary is modular, easy
* learning new grammars is connected, harder
<img src=https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/2600/0*x5OTkS0Vq__c0mH9.jpg width="700" height="400" alt="[interconnected thoughts]">
Intrinsic load is **inherent** to the nature of the task, it sets the difficulty of learning the material. You can't reduce cognitive load here, but you can reduce [[Extraneous Load]]. Or check out [[Germane Load]], or go back to [[CLT]].
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
(set: $intrinsic to 1)
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Extraneous Load </span>
Extraneous load is one of the 3 components of [[Cognitive Load Theory->CLT]].
<img src=https://i.kym-cdn.com/photos/images/original/000/392/685/a9c.png alt="[wall of text]">
Extraneous load comes in many forms. It represents all of the **imperfections in instruction**, such as:
* Adding information or elements that don't contribute to forming schemata
* Framing connecting poorly
* Separating elements that should be chunked together
* Relating elements that should be considered separate
(color:"green")[If this sentence doesn't help you understand extraneous load, it is adding extraneous load. ;)]
See, as example, explaining [[the concept of a rocket ship->Rocket Ship]].
There are many ways to <span class="hop">[[reduce extraneous load in tutorials->Tutorial Tips]]</span>.
Still exploring?:
* [[Intrinsic Load]]
* [[Germane Load]]
* [[Back to CLT->CLT]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Germane Load </span>
Germane load is one of the 3 components of [[Cognitive Load Theory->CLT]].
<img src=https://i0.wp.com/psychlearningcurve.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/FINAL-Cultivating-Student-Learning.png?fit=650%2C425 alt="[growing a brain tree]">
Just like there's good fat and bad fat, there's good and bad cognitive load. Germane is the **good kind**.
It represents the **cost of learning**, or the resources required to actually *chunk* elements into *cognitive schemata*.
Some researchers think it's just a part of [[Intrinsic Load]].
See also:
* [[Extraneous Load]]
* [[Back to CLT->CLT]]
* [[See an example of learning in action->Learning Example]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]You could explain a rocket ship like this:
<img src=http://i.imgur.com/1ZbLQ4r.png alt="[explaining a spaceship, simply]">
or like this:
<img src=https://i.pinimg.com/originals/44/bf/ea/44bfeaf8e9ffe5eb4b14bc5d759f394d.jpg alt="[explaining a spaceship, complexly]">
Sure, the second one has more information (in theory)
But this is about <span class="hop">[[knowing your player->Player Types]]</span> and what they know.
[[Back to CLT->CLT]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header">
Who am I?
</span>
PhD Student at Northeastern University
I study:
- Game-User Interaction
- Games With a Purpose
- Learnability
- Playability
[[What is this? How does it work?]]
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(set: $rewards to 0)<span class="header"> Learnability </span>
How well does your game teach itself? I consider Learnability to be part of [[Playability]].
Consider Learnability separate from [[Educational Games]], which are trying to teach you something besides the game itself.
**Learnability is about teaching the player how to play the game.**
* What buttons do what?
* What's the [[goal->Goals]]?
* What are the best strategies?
* etc.
Creating learnability is a matter of teaching [[Problem Solving]], and [[Empowering the learner->Empowered Learners]] so that they [[understand->Understanding]]. There are also concrete <span class="hop">[[tips->Tutorial Tips]]</span> for making the game easier to learn in general.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> What is this? </span>
This ~~interactive presentation~~ wiki where I talk at you was made with <span class="external"> [[Twine->Twine Link]]. ([[Pink links->Twine Link]] take you outside of this presentation.)</span> <span class="reveal-link">(link-reveal:"New to Twine? ")[There's an undo and redo button along the left sidebar. Useful in case of dead ends.]</span>
Since it's interactive - who are you?
I added lots of text so that I could share this around and it makes sense without me describing it. This comes at the cost of walls of text, sorry. Also, I'm going to try to not just read every page verbatim, that would suck. At this point in the presentation I'm going to tell you how to play, and you should probably be listening instead of reading all this extra stuff.
[[Blue links take you to a related topic->Blue Links]]. [[Purple links take you to places you've already been.->What is this? How does it work?]]
<span class="reveal-link">
[[Green links expand on an idea->Green links]].
(link-reveal:"Our progress will unlock a deeper understanding of:")[
1. Why Some Tutorials Suck
2. How to Teach Your Players Anything
3. How to Engage (and Motivate) Your Player
4. The Academic Theories Behind It All
5. Why Making Serious Games Is Hard, and How to Do It Better
]
</span>
We might even discover that **all of these things are closely linked**.
But first, let's check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]. ([[Yellow links take you to a whole new topic->The Map]].)</span>
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interaction_design")(open-url:"http://twinery.org/")Nicolae Berbece (Xelu) can explain it better than I ever could:
(from GDC '16)
<iframe width="640" height="480" src="https://ytcropper.com/embed/VM5c534ba40e749/loop/noautoplay/" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe><a href="/" target="_blank"></a>
<font color="green">“The best tutorial is the one nobody remembers”</font>
<span class="hop">
[[What can I do better?->Tutorial Tips]]
[[Where do I start?->Hooks]]
</span>
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> The Academic Theories Behind It All </span>
<span class="hop"> For the most part, the ideas here come from [[Cognitive Load Theory->CLT]] as a way of explaining learning, and [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]] as a way of explaining motivation. They're well-validated, but as the saying goes, </span>
(color:"lightgreen")["There are more theories to explain learning and motivation than exist in your philosophy, Horatio"]
Today's talk is also heavily inspired by the works of <span class="hop">[[James Paul Gee->Gee]]</span>.
Ultimately, I hope this web of information shows you that **all of these ideas**, either academic or practical, **feed into each other** as a cohesive explanation and set of guiding principles.
Back to [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Pacing]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header">Summary</span>
<span class="small"><span class="hop"> Learning and Motivation in games is guided by known theories of psychology, such as [[CLT]], [[SDT]], [[Flow]], and [[Gee]]'s principles of good learning. By combining these with industry knowledge from experts like [[Xelu->Why Some Tutorials Suck]], this gives us a greater understanding of how theory and practice fit together. Feel free to check out a full list of [[Tutorial Tips]] or go back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span> and keep exploring.
(color:"lightgreen")[You visited $visited pages. Thanks for playing <3]</span></span>
<span class="title">Josh Aaron Miller
@joshaaronmiller
miller.josh@husky.neu.edu </span>
(color:"lightgreen")[This game's (old) source code was (not sure if it still is) available at: tiny.cc/PlayTheTheory (to run, download and open in your web browser)]
Didn't get enough? Learn more about what I do: <span class="external">
- [[Game-User Interaction->Interaction Design]] </span>
- [[Games With a Purpose->GWAPs]]
- [[Learnability]]
- [[Playability]]<span class="header"> Goals </span>
Best game examples: F2P games
Long-term goals provide context and vision (Clanton 1998)
Short-term goals map out the path
Confusion is not fun.
Frustration is not fun.
Trial and error is not fun.
The player should always know their long and short-term goals and the next immediate steps for making [[progress->Progress]].
(if: $autonomy > 0)[Non-linear goals provide *Autonomy*.]
Goals set expectations, direction, and the promise of [[rewards->Rewards]].
* Goals are part of what motivates a player
* Goals are critical for directing the player's <span class="hop">[[learning->Gee]]</span>
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Rewards]]
* [[Pacing]]
* [[Theory]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<img
src=https://i.pinimg.com/originals/a3/c8/1a/a3c81a288579305d8f3031cf99e63ede.png alt="[a blue link]">(open-url:"https://youtu.be/hbzGO_Qonu0")(open-url:"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oyFQVZ2h0V8")<span class="header"> Citizen Science Games </span>
<img src=https://zniup3zx6m0ydqfpv9y6sgtf-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Screen-shot.png
alt="[Genes in Space, a citizen science game]">
Citizen Science Games are games in which players become contributors to science. Teaching them how to play can be difficult, since science often has a high cognitive load. But the players have a purpose, which drives them to play.
See <span class="external">[[examples of citizen science games]]</span>, or learn more about [[what motivates citizen scientists to play these games]].
[[These are hard games to make->The Challenge of Complex Games]].
Some studies on citizen science games also help us understand [[the process of becoming an expert]].
Other kinds of [{Serious Games]]:
* [[Educational Games]]
* [[Games With a Purpose->GWAPs]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
(if: $visited > 10)[
If we're going to get serious about designing great citizen science games, we'll need to <span class="hop">[[Think Critically]]</span> about our designs.
]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> The Map </span>(set: $worlds to 0) (if: $autonomy + $competence + $relatedness + $purpose > 3)[(set: $worlds to $worlds + 1)] (if: $intrinsic + $extraneous + $germane > 2)[(set: $worlds to $worlds + 1)] (if: $empowered + $problem + $understanding > 2)[(set: $worlds to $worlds + 1)] (if: $edgames + $citsci > 1)[(set: $worlds to $worlds + 1)] (if: $pacing + $progress + $novelty + $narrative + $theory > 4)[(set: $worlds to $worlds + 1)]
This game has 5 major worlds and 2 bonus stages:
(if: $worlds < 5)[You have seen $worlds/5 worlds.
Return here after seeing all 5 worlds for a special reward.]
(if: $worlds > 4)[<span class="external">[[Amazing job! You did it!|Congratulations]]</span>]
(if: $xelu < 1)[###World 0: (text-style:"smear")[[[Tutorial Island->Why Some Tutorials Suck]]]] <span class="hop">
1. [[Engagement]]
(if: $engaged > 0)[---- [[Pacing]] (if: $pacing < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Progress]] (if: $progress < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Novelty]] (if: $novelty < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Narrative]] (if: $narrative < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Theory]] (if: $theory < 1)[(NEW)]
]
2. [[Cognitive Load Theory->CLT]]
(if: $clt > 0)[---- [[Intrinsic Load]] (if: $intrinsic < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Extraneous Load]] (if: $extraneous < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Germane Load]] (if: $germane < 1)[(NEW)]
]
3. [[Self-Determination Theory->SDT]]
(if: $sdt > 0)[---- [[Autonomy]] (if: $autonomy < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Competence]] (if: $competence < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Relatedness]] (if: $relatedness < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Purpose]] (if: $purpose < 1)[(NEW)]
]
4. [[Gee's Principles of Good Learning->Gee]]
(if: $gee > 0)[---- [[Empowered Learners]] (if: $empowered < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Problem Solving]] (if: $problem < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Understanding]] (if: $understanding < 1)[(NEW)]
]
5. [[Serious Games]]
(if: $serious > 0)[---- [[Educational Games]] (if: $edgames < 1)[(NEW)]
---- [[Citizen Science Games]] (if: $citsci < 1)[(NEW)]
]
BONUS 1. [[Tutorial Tips]]
BONUS 2. [[Playability heuristics]]
</span>
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(if: $visited > 15)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Q7ECX5FaX0")(open-url:"http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/1524/the_chemistry_of_game_design.php")(open-url:"https://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html")(open-url:"http://www.ou.edu/education/centers-and-partnerships/zarrow/self-determination-assessment-tools/arc-self-determination-scale")(open-url:"http://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/168460/the_structure_of_fun_learning_.php?page=4")(open-url:"https://cdn-images-1.medium.com/max/2000/1*O5FClRZSTMg4sSlO5WyJkA.jpeg ")(open-url:"http://immersyve.com/white-paper-the-player-experience-of-need-satisfaction-pens-2007/")<span class="header">Thinking Critically</span>
A.K.A. "The Limitations Section"
It's Meta Time.
If we're going to design really powerful games, that [[teach->Educational Games]], [[motivate->Engagement]], and [[transform->Serious Games]], we need to be able to critically analyze any experience.
It's time to think about this game/presentation/experience. What's good about its design? What could be better? I can name at least 9 flaws and how to improve them, how many can you think of? <span class="reveal-link"> (link-reveal:"See what I thought.")[
1. Walls of text, solvable by having click-to-reveal text or more pages.
2. Learning objectives could be clearer.
3. Not enough variety to the types of activites, could add more interactive tasks like this or more multimedia
4. Not enough variety to the difficulty; should have more range from high-level concepts to low-level details
5. Multimedia, where it exists, isn't integrated in a way that reinforces the material - use images/video in a way that clearly illustrates the lesson
6. The author seems to not understand what the audience knows / doesn't know - solvable by figuring out the audience before making a presentation.
7. Too many non-meaningful choices; choices should lead to rich content, rather than a couple of high-level sentences (linked with #3 and #5)
8. Not enough connections between what the player has already discovered and the current material. Linked to #1, since the information is not as dynamic to the player's knowledge as it could be. This could be fixed by having more "if the player has seen this topic, give them this extra information, otherwise don't mention it."
9. The contents are too interwoven, there isn't a clear hierarchy of introducing one concept at a time and building up. Solvable by having a more linear structure with branching options, rather than a fully non-linear graph. Clearly, the "yellow link" idea was tacked on at the end, and some links are even the wrong color! How confusing!
]</span>
For more practice with these concepts, critique the Achievement Hunters as they <span class="external">[[try to teach their friend Geoff]]</span> how to play Super Smash Bros. Consider how Geoff's [[cognitive load->CLT]] is overwhelmed when they try to teach concepts that aren't [[when he needs it->Information On Demand and Just in Time]] or [[out of order->Well-ordered Problems]].
Or go back to <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span> to keep exploring.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"https://citizensciencegames.com/")<span class="header"> Why Do Players Play Citizen Science Games? </span>
Their motivation comes from the science, not the game.
**Initial Motivations**
* Previous interest in science (and the specific research topic of the game)
* Desire to contribute to research, purpose
**Continued Engagement**
* Feedback, recognition for their contributions (from the game and its developers)
* Enjoying the task, pacing
* Teamwork, subgroups with clearly defined goals to contribute to the project
* Feeling like part of a team/community
* Socialization, interaction with others
* Achievement as a community
* Intellectual challenge
**References**
* Iacovides et al., 2013
* Curtis, 2015
* Jennett et al., 2016
[[Back to Citizen Science Games->Citizen Science Games]]
Not sure where this fits into the grand scheme of things? Check <span class="hop">[[The Map]]</span>.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ]<span class="header"> Becoming an Expert Foldit Player </span>
<img src=https://fold.it/portal/files/Intro3-4.png width="600", height="400" alt="[Foldit]">
Foldit is a [[Citizen Science->Citizen Science Games]] [[Human Computation->GWAPs]] puzzle game about folding proteins in 3D space.
In 2017, researchers studied the process of gaining expertise (Ponti et al.):
**Beginners**
* Trial and error
* Learning from the game tutorial
* Unsure why things happened
**Experts**
* Manual tuning
* External information, <span class="external">[["paratexts"]]</span>
* Deeper understanding of consequences
[[Back to Citizen Science Games->Citizen Science Games]]
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"http://foldit.wikia.com/wiki/Foldit_Wiki")<span class="header"> Rewards </span>
Best game examples: Cookie Clicker
<img src=https://rlv.zcache.com/have_a_cookie_classic_round_sticker-re64bc992e1dd4a03b627e2724fe4da3b_v9waf_8byvr_307.jpg?rvtype=content
alt="[a cookie]">
Rewards are a big thing. They are a huge part of <span class="hop">[[motivation->SDT]]</span>.
They are so big, in fact, that I don't have time to cover them.
But if you insist, here's how games can make use of the idea of <span class="external">[[fixed/variable interval/ratio reward scheduling]]</span>.
Other types of [[Engagement]]:
* [[Narrative]]
* [[Novelty]]
* [[Progress]]
* [[Goals]]
* [[Theory]]
* [[Pacing]]
(set: $rewards to 1)(open-url:" https://www.gamasutra.com/view/feature/131494/behavioral_game_design.php
")<span class="header"> Usability </span>
How easy is your game to use? I consider Usability to be part of [[Playability]].
Usability research in games originates mostly from usability in software.
Ever pick up a game and know exactly how to play without being told? That's good usability and [[Learnability]].
Good usability is, among other things:
* Using standard controls (up is jump)
* Using standard colors (red is bad)
* Using standard menus (under what subheader is your subtitles option?)
* Being accessible (you *do* have a subtitles option, right?)
* Being *actually* accessible (God of War before its update to enlarge the microscopic subtitles)
* Being accessible in ways that you don't usually think about (can I not play your mobile game if I can't hear the sound, or need to pause in the middle of a match?)
You'll find that many aspects of Usability leads to a <span class="external">[[Curb-Cut Effect]]</span>, because improvements that provide accessibility help everybody. Often because it reduces [[cognitive load->CLT]].
There are many [[Playability heuristics]] that consider usability.
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(if: $visited > 30)[ Seen enough? [[Let's wrap it up.]] ](open-url:"https://medium.com/@mosaicofminds/the-curb-cut-effect-how-making-public-spaces-accessible-to-people-with-disabilities-helps-everyone-d69f24c58785")(open-url:"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Lx7EB6i36A")(open-url:"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-a_WKQRW08")<img
src=https://sickr.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/zelda_tri_force_heroes_link_thumbs_up.jpg alt="[a green link]">